Middle Paleolithic
In everyday language, the word Neanderthal is still used as an insult, usually by people who have never met one. In reality, Neanderthals were far from primitive and possessed well-developed cognitive abilities. What were those cognitive abilities? Learn more by reading the text below!
National Geographic did justice to this topic, unlike Viasat History, which occasionally prefers spectacle over nuance
The defining phenomenon of this period is the appearance of Homo sapiens neanderthalensis, Homo sapiens sapiens, and the Mousterian culture or industry (French: moustérien). This industry was named after the site Le Moustier in France. The Middle Paleolithic lasted from approximately 200,000 to 40,000 years ago.
When we picture a Neanderthal, we often imagine a backward, primitive creature. In everyday language, the word Neanderthal is still used as an insult, usually by people who have never met one. In reality, Neanderthals were far from primitive and possessed well-developed cognitive abilities.
The First Neanderthal Discoveries
The first Neanderthal remains were discovered in Belgium and Gibraltar, but they were not recognized as belonging to a distinct human species until the discovery of fossils in Kleine Feldhofer Grotte, in the Neander Valley (Neandertal) near Düsseldorf, Germany, in 1856.
What Did Neanderthals Look Like and What Were They Like?
Neanderthals were relatively short in stature but powerfully built, with strong muscles. Their skulls were low, their cheekbones prominent, and their teeth were occasionally used as a kind of “third hand.” Many Neanderthal bones show evidence of healed injuries, indicating that individuals survived serious trauma. This strongly suggests a sense of care and social responsibility within Neanderthal groups: the injured were not abandoned. At the same time, these injuries also testify to active hunting of large animals. Neanderthals lived in small nomadic groups or tribes, a lifestyle well suited to survival in the harsh, cold climates of the Middle Paleolithic.
Clear evidence of social care has been found at sites such as Shanidar Cave in Iraq and Hušnjakovo Brdo in Krapina, Croatia, where individuals with severe injuries lived long after those injuries occurred. Another important indicator of social and cognitive complexity is burial, a practice characteristic of Neanderthals. They buried members of their groups and likely performed rituals, suggesting a form of spirituality that sets them apart from earlier hominins. Notable burial sites include La Chapelle-aux-Saints, La Ferrassie, and Le Moustier in France, Kebara Cave in Israel, Teshik-Tash in Uzbekistan, and again Shanidar in Iraq.
An Upgrade Compared to Earlier Hominins
As mentioned earlier, Neanderthal cognitive abilities were more developed than those of earlier hominins. They produced around sixty different types of tool points, primarily used for hunting large animals, but also for various everyday tasks. The complexity involved in producing such a diverse toolkit suggests cognitive abilities comparable, if not equal, to those of Homo sapiens sapiens. Adding to this picture, Neanderthals were capable of speech. This is supported by genetic studies and by the discovery of the hyoid (lingual) bone, which is virtually identical to that of modern humans.
As we gradually transition toward the Upper Paleolithic, it is important to mention the Châtelperronian culture or industry, named after Châtelperron in France. This culture represents a bridge between the Middle and Upper Paleolithic. Stone tools characteristic of the Châtelperronian were found in Saint-Césaire and Grotte du Renne near Arcy-sur-Cure, alongside Neanderthal fossils. For this reason, it is generally believed that Neanderthals were the first makers of these tools.
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So, what happened to the Neanderthals? It is widely accepted that Homo sapiens neanderthalensis and Homo sapiens sapiens coexisted and even interbred. Genetic studies confirm this interaction. DNA samples taken from fossils discovered in Donja Voća, Croatia, indicate that modern European populations carry 1–4% Neanderthal DNA. Who knows, some readers might be a little more Neanderthal than they think.
How many of you harbored prejudices about Neanderthals? Be honest.
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Sources:
Težak – Gregl, T., Hrvatske zemlje od starijega kamenog do bakrenog doba. Prapovijest hrvatskih zemalja 1. svezak, Zagreb: Leykam international, 2017.
Rodríguez-Hidalgo, A., “The last days of the Neanderthals”, National Geographic, February 28, 2025, https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/neanderthals-extinction-homo-sapiens
Monnier, G., “Neanderthal Behavior,” Nature https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/neanderthal-behavior-59267999/
moustérien. Hrvatska enciklopedija, mrežno izdanje. Leksikografski zavod Miroslav Krleža, 2013. – 2025. https://www.enciklopedija.hr/clanak/mousterien
“šatelperonijen”, Struna. Hrvatsko strukovno nazivlje. http://struna.ihjj.hr/naziv/satelperonijen/33787/