Who Did the Phoenicians Colonize?

Last time we wrote about trade; today’s topic is closely related to it. So, what is colonization, your five-year-old child may wonder? It is a deliberate process in which one country populates foreign land. The main reasons for colonization are the exploitation of resources, strategic control, and overpopulation. Today, you will learn why the Phoenicians colonized the Mediterranean Sea.

Written Sources and Archaeological Evidence

Evidence of Phoenician presence throughout the Mediterranean comes either from written sources or from material remains, that is, traded artifacts. For example, texts found in Sardinia are dated to the first half of the 9th century BCE, while a text from Cyprus, also from the 9th century BCE, indicates their presence on the island. According to Pliny, the earliest possible colonies were founded in Gadir (Cádiz) around 1100 BCE, Lixus in Morocco, Utica on the African coast, and Carthage in 814/813 BCE. However, archaeological evidence does not confirm Phoenician presence in Lixus before the 6th century BCE, nor in Mogador before the 7th century BCE.

Among written sources, two texts stand out: the annals of the Assyrian king Tiglath-Pileser I (r. 1114–1076 BCE) and the Egyptian Tale of Wenamun. Pseudo-Scylax, in his Periplus from the 4th century BCE, describes the geography of Phoenicia, while Homer mentions the Phoenicians in the Odyssey in the context of trade, noting their exchange of “worthless cheap jewelry” for raw materials. Herodotus also refers to them in Histories, particularly in relation to overseas voyages.

Material remains found in Spain suggest that Phoenicians visited its coasts as early as the 10th century BCE. Trade artifacts can be found throughout the Mediterranean, some of which will be mentioned in the following sections.

When Did Colonization Begin?

It is generally believed that the colonization of the Mediterranean began at the end of the 12th century BCE, during the so-called pre-colonial period. At that time, Sidon was at the height of its power. According to the Tale of Wenamun and Homer, Sidon traded with the Egyptian city of Tanis and with the Aegean islands, but there is no mention of colony founding. In other words, it is unlikely that colonies were established during the pre-colonial period.

Only toward the end of this period were the first colonies founded, primarily by the economically powerful city-state of Tyre, which overshadowed Sidon, in the 10th and 9th centuries BCE. When Sidon regained power, it expanded along the northern and southern coasts of the Near East and established trading communities in Athens and on the island of Delos. These two were rarely on friendly terms.

Arwad and Byblos did not participate significantly in the colonization process, although the Greek geographer Stephanus of Byzantium claims that Byblos founded a colony in the Cyclades, specifically on the island of Melos, at the end of the 2nd millennium BCE. However, it is more likely that this was a small trading outpost rather than a permanent settlement.

What Lands Did the Phoenicians Colonize?

The locations of colonies were carefully chosen. They were usually established on islands, peninsulas, or coastal areas and occupied relatively small territories. They were easily defensible, strategically positioned, and accessible, and they often had distinctive landmarks visible from the sea to help sailors navigate and identify them.

Moreover, on the Iberian Peninsula, the Phoenicians founded several colonies, including Gadir (Cádiz), Malaka, Algeciras (Latin Carteia), Sephala (modern Seville), Abdera (modern Adra), and Alicante (a Carthaginian colony). According to ancient literary sources, Gadir was founded in 1104 BCE, while archaeological evidence suggests it was established in the early 8th century BCE. The location was chosen due to its proximity to mines, as the Iberian Peninsula was rich in minerals such as copper, lead, and iron. Alicante was founded for the same reason: the area was visited in the 9th century BCE, and a settlement was established in the 8th century BCE. They must have loved today's Spain!

In the Balearic Islands, Phoenician colonies were founded at the beginning of the 1st millennium BCE. On Ibiza, they established a colony in the bay of Sa Caleta. Sardinia was colonized in the 9th century BCE, with several settlements founded, including Nora, Sulci, Tharros, Caralis, Bosa, and Olbia. Toward the end of the 6th century BCE, these colonies came into conflict with the Sardinians. Naughty Phoenicians!

On the Sicilian coast, the Phoenicians founded several colonies, such as Motya (Mozia), Palermo, Soluntum, and Lilybaeum (Marsala) at the end of the 8th century BCE. They settled Malta in the 8th–7th centuries BCE, calling it Malet, meaning “refuge,” with Melita as the island’s central settlement. Cyprus was colonized around 800 BCE, although it may have been visited earlier. Elayi suggests that the Phoenicians reached the island as early as the 13th century BCE, and it is possible that Tyrians founded the settlement of Kition (Greek Κίτιον) in the 10th century BCE.

Furthermore, the colonial city of Lixus was reportedly founded in 1100 BCE according to written sources, but archaeological evidence points to the 8th–7th centuries BCE. It was located in present-day Morocco. Ancient sources state that Utica was founded in 1001 BCE; however, archaeology suggests an 8th-century BCE origin. Carthage was founded by Tyre in 814 BCE according to ancient authors, yet the oldest archaeological remains (tombs, houses, and pottery fragments) date to the late 8th century BCE. Carthage later established several colonies, many of which have already been mentioned. That famous Carthage.

Near Carthage, the Phoenician colony of Hadrumetum was founded in the 9th century BCE. Leptis Magna was established at the beginning of the 1st millennium BCE in Libya, and almost simultaneously Leptis Minor was founded in present-day Tunisia. Both were founded by the Carthaginians.

Conclusion

Skilled sailors and shipbuilders, the Phoenicians spread across the Mediterranean Sea, from the Iberian Peninsula to the northern African coast. Due to limited land and, more importantly, a lack of essential resources, they colonized Mediterranean coastlines and islands. Another major reason for colonization was the need to secure trade routes by establishing safe ports for their trading ships. Not only did they colonize the Mediterranean, but they also influenced the peoples they came into contact with; the Phoenicians passed their culture on to Mediterranean societies.

Does colonization still exist? And can you find the places mentioned in text on the world map? Let us know in the comments.

#Phoenicia #Levant #colonization #Mediterraniansea #sailing #spain #africa #coast #ibiza #balearic

Next on your reading list

Sources:

Braudel, F., Memory and the Mediterranean, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2001

Elayi, J., The history of Phoenicia, Lockwood Press, 2018

Sader, H., The history and archaeology of Phoenicia, Atlanta: SBL Press, 2019

Hadrumet, Proleksis enciklopedija, https://proleksis.lzmk.hr/25095/

Malta, Proleksis enciklopedija, https://proleksis.lzmk.hr/35856/